From Stone To Spoon

English guide

PALEOLITHIC 01

Forget the image of a caveman biting into a bison: the real Paleolithic diet included much less meat than one might imagine and far more vegetables, greens, and fruits. Prehistoric humans obtained protein primarily from fish and insects rather than red meat. At this point in history, humans were able to utilize and gather everything their environment offered. They were skilled gatherers of roots, fruits, berries, tubers, eggs, invertebrates, and small mammals, and also fed on deceased animals. Thus, they were not yet hunters at this stage, resulting in an almost nonexistent environmental impact.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
0 CO₂ e(i)

The indicated number is the sum of CO₂ e(i) points for each food item, simplifying immediate comprehension. This acronym represents the equivalent of carbon dioxide emitted for each food item over its entire lifecycle, including materials for production, fertilizers, transportation energy, and cooking. In essence, CO₂ e(i) indicates the environmental impact of each food item in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, considering the entire process from origin to table.

NEOLITHIC 02

Only with the Neolithic period and the subsequent Metal Age did human impact become increasingly evident. The construction of stable villages, the need for wood for building, pastures for livestock, and fields for crops led to gradual deforestation, altering the vegetation and wildlife across entire areas.

The economic and dietary revolution during the Neolithic period completed the domestication of pigs, goats, sheep, and cattle, along with the simultaneous domestication of barley, wheat, lentils, and peas. Salt was widely used for food preservation. Cereals, legumes, and cheeses were prepared, stored, and preserved, and the fermentation process for grapes and barley was also controlled.

The first farmers, who lived around 12,000 years ago, likely consumed no more than 40-50% animal protein, with diets that closely resembled those of modern farmers in India or China. The spread of agriculture caused a significant and steady population increase, with the growth of increasingly larger permanent villages. This expansion came at the cost of the spread of new diseases from domesticated animals, which were easily transmitted in the poor hygienic conditions of early settlements, leading to a general decline in health. The spread of agriculture also led to, for instance, a noticeable reduction in tooth size, while grain-based diets immediately increased the incidence of cavities.

A SERVING OF CEREALS (70)
A SERVING OF LEGUMES (54)
A WILD FRUIT (5)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
129 CO₂ e(i)

METAL AGE 03

As societies became sedentary, both needs and environmental impact grew. Fruits and vegetables from gardens were added to the table alongside cereals. Local wild plants were almost entirely replaced by cultivated species. This approach involved conscious choices that, for the first time, had a significant environmental impact and led to a heavily anthropized landscape. In some sites, there is often evidence of limited use of rich natural resources and a restricted selection of foods, with an almost total reliance on what was directly produced or reproduced by humans.

EXAMPLES:
COOKED TUBERS (70)
CHEESE MADE WITH MILK FROM FAMILY-RAISED ANIMALS (200)
UNLEAVENED BREAD (80)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

350 CO₂ e(i)

METAL AGE 04

If Neolithic farmers laid the foundations of the rural system on the peninsula, it was significantly enriched during the Metal Age when grapevines, fig trees, cherry trees, plum trees, wild plums, and chestnut trees were gradually adopted and adapted. Additionally, spelt, rye, oats, millet, panic grass, vetch, and chickpeas were introduced, depending on the specific ecological conditions of each region or micro-region. Honey, figs, berries, and dried fruits enabled the development of an increasingly varied confectionery industry. Between the last centuries of the Bronze Age and the early Iron Age (11th-9th century B.C.), the use of wine spread among the aristocratic groups of the Italian peninsula. With the expansion of viticulture and the refinement of olive cultivation, the so-called “conquest of the hills” was completed: the cultivation of hillsides near fortified centers of ancient tribal states on the peninsula. These hillside terraces, sometimes with small irrigation systems, required significant labor investments for setup and maintenance but provided high revenues and, more importantly, produced prestigious wine and oil essential for rituals and symposia where aristocratic status was reaffirmed.

EXAMPLES:
CAUGHT SARDINES (75)
A SERVING OF COOKED CABBAGE (83)
CEREAL PORRIDGE (70)
FERMENTED BEVERAGE (LIKE BEER) (100)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

328 CO₂ e(i)

EGYPTIANS 05

Bread and beer formed the basis of the diet of ancient Egyptians. The cultivation of cereals, such as emmer wheat, barley, and a type of wheat, was one of the most important activities for the Egyptian people, dating back to the Predynastic period. This was supported by the annual flooding of the Nile River, which left behind large quantities of fertile silt on the land, allowing for up to two harvests per year. The flood level indicated potential crop yields: a low flood meant reduced cultivable land, causing severe famines. Very little meat was used; instead, they preferred to cook with salted, smoked, or sun-dried fish, cheese, legumes, and fruit. Gardens and orchards were widespread in ancient Egypt. They cultivated vines, olive trees, watermelons, melons, figs, date palms, and, only after being introduced in the New Kingdom, apple and pomegranate trees. Gardens featured numerous varieties of vegetables, including onions, leeks, garlic, celery, cucumbers, and especially chickpeas, broad beans, lentils, and peas.

EXAMPLES:
A SWEET FLATBREAD (130)
A SERVING OF COOKED BROAD BEANS AND PEAS (54)
AN APPLE (84)
A HEAD OF GARLIC (83)
A GLASS OF LOCAL WINE (150)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

501 CO₂ e(i)

BABYLONIANS 06

The inhabitants of Mesopotamia had access to a wide variety of foods. They produced, first and foremost, different types of cheese—scholars have cataloged at least twenty—and prepared up to 300 types of bread. They were also heavy consumers of soups and likely produced some of the earliest known sausages. Their diet primarily included beef, pork, goat, sheep, and game, flavored with aromatic or spicy herbs such as cumin and mustard. Around 2000 B.C., the Mesopotamian diet expanded to include sea and freshwater fish, shellfish, and crustaceans. They began preparing a type of brine called siqqu, made from fish, shellfish, and locusts, resembling the Roman garum. They cultivated onions, leeks, garlic, cucumbers, mushrooms, turnips, and roots. The most consumed fruits were grapes, figs, apples, pears, and pomegranates.

To prevent food spoilage in the region’s warm climate, various preservation methods were used depending on the food. Meats and fish were dried and preserved in oil or salt. Drying was also used for legumes, vegetables, cereals, grapes, figs, and dates. The Sumerians also enjoyed drinking various types of beer and fermented beverages.

EXAMPLES:
A SERVING OF CAUGHT SHELLFISH (75)
A SERVING OF BARLEY BREAD (80)
A PEAR (84)
LETTUCE (83)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

322 CO₂ e(i)

CRETANS 07

Olive oil was a key component of the Minoan diet, economy, and daily life. The Cretans ate very little meat, traditionally used only for sacrifices, and preferred legumes, which were consumed daily. Surprisingly, given that Crete is an island, they rarely ate fish! They also had a preference for tubers and various herbs. Typical dishes included, for example, dried beans with artichokes and vinegar or broad beans with onions, thyme, and asparagus. Archaeological sites have provided information about the use of many spices, such as coriander, cumin, fennel, sesame, celery, mint, and watercress.

Cereals, especially wheat and barley, were also commonly found in Cretan dishes. The Cretans were the only people to maintain their traditional diet even after the arrival of the Romans, who changed dietary habits throughout the Mediterranean.

It is scientifically recognized that the Cretan diet was extremely healthy, with its benefits well-known worldwide since ancient times. For this people, food was not merely fuel for the body but a complex blend of art, creation, taste, identity, and flavors.

EXAMPLES:
A SERVING OF SPELT (70)
A SERVING OF CHICKPEAS (54)
PITA-TYPE BREAD (80)
A POMEGRANATE (84)
LEEKS AND OLIVES (83)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

371 CO₂ e(i)

PHOENICIANS 08

The Phoenician diet was based primarily on cereals. They cultivated spelt (a type of wheat) and barley, using barley flour to prepare various types of soups, flatbreads, and bread. Fruits, vegetables, and legumes, eaten either raw or cooked, were also added to their diet, including onions, edible roots, lettuce, broad beans, lentils, and chickpeas.

Meat was consumed less frequently and usually came from domestic poultry. The main condiments were oil and sesame; honey was used as a sweetener and also served medicinal purposes. Fresh fruits were also used for desserts.

Among beverages, beer was very popular, but wine was also widely consumed in the Eastern Mediterranean at that time, where quality wine production was well-established.

EXAMPLES:
A SERVING OF BARLEY (70)
SEASONAL VEGETABLES AND FRUITS (167)
UNLEAVENED BREAD (70)
DRIED FRUIT (100)
OIL (90)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

497 CO₂ e(i)

JEWS 09

For this people, too, bread was a staple of their diet, and in addition to leavened bread, they also prepared unleavened bread, known as matzah.

Meat was not commonly used in cooking and was reserved for festive occasions. The most consumed meats during these times were lamb, veal, or ox, which were boiled or roasted, while pork was forbidden.

In contrast, legumes, fruits, and cheese were widely consumed, accompanied by wine and other beverages made from the fermentation of barley, honey, and apples.

EXAMPLES:
A SERVING OF LEGUMES (54)
SEASONAL FRUIT (84)
UNLEAVENED BREAD (70)
HONEY (60)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

268 CO₂ e(i)

ANCIENT GREECE 10

The origins of the "Mediterranean diet" can be traced back to the dietary habits of Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, where agricultural products were highly favored. This dietary approach, known as Greco-Roman, was essentially based on the preferential consumption of "bread-oil-wine," along with cheese, vegetables, small amounts of meat, plenty of fish, and seafood.

For the ancient Greeks, eating was not just about pleasure. Great admirers of health and beauty, they could not overlook the importance of food in pursuing these ideals. Hence the well-known phrase by Hippocrates: "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food." The wealthy particularly enjoyed fresh fish (mainly fried in oil or grilled) and seafood, especially oysters (eaten raw or fried). Many types of bread were produced—up to 72 varieties, including daraton (unleavened bread), phaios (dark bread), semidelites (made with fine wheat), and caibanites (a bread made from various flours). They also made bread with olives, raisins, and dried figs.

EXAMPLES:
3 CAUGHT OYSTERS (80)
OLIVES (84)
A SERVING OF DARK BREAD (70)
SEASONAL FRUIT (84)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

318 CO₂ e(i)

ANCIENT GREECE 11

In ancient Greece, people ate three times a day: breakfast (akrâtisma), lunch (tristo), and dinner (dèipnon), and meals were not meant to be overly rich. Meat was not commonly used in cooking. The Greeks considered it an indulgent luxury with little health benefit, appearing only on the tables of the wealthy; pork was preferred, partly because poultry only became common in the classical era. The basic diet consisted mainly of bread and legumes, salted or smoked fish. They consumed a lot of fruit, especially cherries, grapes, and strawberries, while peaches, originally Persian, were introduced to Greece after the 4th century B.C. A fish-based condiment called garos (similar to the Roman garum) was popular, akin to modern anchovy sauce. Dinner ended with dessert: dried fruit, sweets, and honey. Their primary drink was wine, often diluted to maintain clarity in conversation, and it was commonly consumed in thermopolia, the bars of the time. Another common drink was kikeon, made from barley flour, coriander and flax seeds, wine, grated cheese, and mint leaves.

EXAMPLES:
A SERVING OF FRIED CAUGHT FISH (75)
SEASONAL VEGETABLES AND FRUIT (167)
MEDIUM WHOLEMEAL LOAF (110)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

352 CO₂ e(i)

ETRUSCANS 12

In the earliest period, the diet of the majority of the population was based on cereals, mainly wheat, spelt, millet, and barley. These were consumed in the form of gruel or a type of polenta (the puls of the Latins), as well as legumes (peas, chickpeas, lentils), prepared in soups or simply boiled. This diet, rich in carbohydrates and plant-based proteins, was supplemented with fruit, vegetables, dairy products, and primarily sheep and goat meat. In coastal cities, small tuna, swordfish, and rays were also consumed. In the lagoons of Maccarese and Orbetello, eels and large eels (capitoni), sea bass, and sea bream were common. Wine was the preferred drink, although it was often diluted. Sometimes, meals were accompanied by another refreshing drink made from fermented milk.

EXAMPLES:
SMALL CAUGHT TUNA (75)
SEASONAL VEGETABLES (83)
CEREALS (70)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

228 CO₂ e(i)

ANCIENT ROME 13

The primitive diet of the Latin peoples primarily consisted of puls, a type of polenta made from spelt flour, rather bland, cooked in water and salt, usually accompanied by legumes, small salted fish (gerres or maenae), fruit, cheese, and, rarely, meat. With the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire, the dietary conditions of the Romans changed radically. While people in poorer neighborhoods ate their meals seated on rough stools around a common wooden table with a nearly unvaried menu, in noble residences, the dining room was called the "triclinium," named after the three beds placed around the table where diners would recline to eat. The menu was characterized by large quantities of diverse and richly prepared food.

EXAMPLES:
CEREALS AND LEGUMES (120)
EGG (303)
SEASONAL FRUITS AND VEGETABLES (167)
WHOLEMEAL BREAD (89)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

679 CO₂ e(i)

ANCIENT ROME 14

The meal for the wealthy began with an appetizer, the gustatio, consisting of light foods, often including olives, eggs, and mushrooms; the traditional drink at this stage was a mix of wine and honey. Then followed the main meal, which included three courses based on meat and legumes.

The finest meats were from pork, wild boar, and dormouse, while among game, favorites included peacock, flamingo, and stork; however, the Romans’ preferred dish was fish, which appeared at every table. The third course, the dessert, called secundae mensae, consisted of dried fruits, preserves, sweets made with flour and honey, and various cheeses.

Fresh fruits were always available: apples, pears, cherries, grapes, plums, figs, peaches, walnuts, almonds, chestnuts, as well as apricots and dates imported from Armenia and Africa. There were three types of bread: the fine bread, affordable only by the wealthy (panis candidus); white bread (secondarius), and black bread (plebeius).

EXAMPLES:
EGGS (303)
A CAUGHT WILD FISH (75)
GAME MEAT (160)
SEASONAL VEGETABLES AND FRUIT (167)
BREAD (100)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

805 CO₂ e(i)

MIDDLE AGES 15

Transportation difficulties and food preservation issues meant that each area primarily consumed local products. This also explains the differences we still observe today in the consumption of certain foods across different European regions: for example, the prevalence of olive oil and wine in southern-central Europe, butter or lard and beer in northern-central Europe, or the prominence of cereals (think of pasta) in the so-called "Mediterranean diet." Naturally, the medieval menu varied greatly depending on the social class of the population.

Common people ate simply. For the general populace, bread was the staple of the diet, which was almost entirely vegetarian. The poorer classes, especially peasants, consumed a type of bread made with a mixture of flour, barley, rye, millet, and fava beans, while city dwellers had access to wheat bread. Bread was used in a variety of soups and other preparations. Oil was scarce, and seasonings were mostly animal-based fats. Fruits were rare, and sweets (made with nuts, honey, and other dried fruits) were almost nonexistent. For more important celebrations, mutton and goat were roasted.

The art of preserving meat by smoking and stuffing it, salting, and mincing it for winter consumption was also well known. Eggs and cheese, especially pecorino, were commonly consumed.

EXAMPLES:
A POTATO AND CARROT SOUP (189)
A FRIED EGG (336)
SEASONAL VEGETABLES (83)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

608 CO₂ e(i)

MIDDLE AGES 16

The nobility followed a very rich and heavy diet, favoring strong, sweet-sour, and spicy flavors, imaginative dishes, and paying close attention to the presentation of food as well as taste. The list of meats and fish used in the Middle Ages is vast. It ranged from pork to veal, deer, goose, rabbit, goat, fallow deer, and mutton. Fish choices were equally varied: pike, sturgeon, salmon, tench, shellfish, and cod, hake, sea bass, all the way to whales, seals, and walruses, all classified as fish.

In the Middle Ages, the Christian calendar alternated days when the consumption of meat and fish was allowed. Many recipes had versions “for lean days” and “for fat days.” Birds also added variety to banquet menus: partridge, pheasant, pigeon, wild duck, quail, and snipe were particularly beloved. Small birds were used to stuff savory pies. Meats, fish, and game underwent long cooking times, as it was believed this made them easier to digest. The heavy use of herbs was also for health reasons, as they were used medicinally. Meals usually began with fruit and ended with fruit accompanied by candies. Fruit was also widely used in savory pies and roasts. Favorite fruits included quince, pomegranate, grapes, dates, figs, raisins, and pears. Pure grape juice was used for fish or meat stews. Common vegetables included lettuce, cabbage, peas, celery, horseradish, leek, artichoke, lentils, and turnips. Nuts, hazelnuts, and chestnuts were very popular, with almonds holding special importance due to their taste and color. The consumption of eggs reached impressive levels, used alone, in sauces, with herbs, for fillings, and as decoration. Honey was omnipresent, used not only in sweets instead of sugar but also in bread, meat dishes, and fruit dishes. Honey was more accessible and cheaper than imported sugar, often being produced in domestic hives.

EXAMPLES
A RUSTIC WHOLEMEAL LOAF (100)
A FILLET OF WILD-CAUGHT SALMON (75)
SEASONAL VEGETABLES (83)
A CLUSTER OF GRAPES (70)
A FRUIT AND EGG PUDDING (306)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

634 CO₂ e(i)

RENAISSANCE 17

The meals of the wealthy during this period remained rich and heavy, very similar to those of the medieval nobility. As always, the daily routines and meals of the humbler classes during the Renaissance were governed by daylight. People rose early, often awakened by their wife or mother, who had already been up for a while. Before leaving the house for work, a breakfast consisting of a slice of bread and half a glass of wine was recommended. In the evening, as the sun set, the day concluded with a meal, set differently depending on the income of the family around the table. This was the rule for the poor, who during the day needed another meal, lunch or "commestio," around eleven o’clock. Dinner was generally longer, as people were freer after work and could spend more time at the table with family. At that time, the evening meal for the poor was quite modest and consisted of bread, vegetables, jam, and fruit, as well as beans, millet, and chestnut porridge. The herbs used by the poor often served as preservatives; indeed, these herbs allowed dishes to last for more than one day. Occasionally, an egg could enrich dinner, but it often became the main dish when fried. Bread was always unsalted, as salt was very costly and hard to come by, especially for the poor. Bread, the staple of the poor’s diet, was eaten plain, while the wealthy used it as a base for roasts.

When bread became stale, it was customary to make “panata,” a soup of grated hard bread, eggs, Parmesan, nutmeg, and salt. Pasta and soups, including macaroni, were widely used; meat and chicken were served on special occasions, and when a pig was slaughtered, it was customary to offer a bit of black pudding to a neighbor. Among the poor, spices were almost nonexistent due to their high cost. Spices were not only for flavoring food but also for masking the strong smell of meat, which often was not very fresh due to the lack of food preservation systems. Soups in this period were often based on aromatic herbs, such as onion bulbs, which added more flavor to the meal.

EXAMPLES
A VEGETABLE AND LEGUME SOUP (189)
A BOILED EGG (303)
SEASONAL FRUIT (83)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

576 CO₂ e(i)

1700 18

The diet of the poorest was meager. In impoverished areas of Europe, such as Ireland, Spain, Italy, Bulgaria, and Russia, the staple diet consisted of corn soup or rye bread with vegetables (potatoes, cabbage, beans, and onions), water, tea or coffee, and occasionally alcoholic beverages, depending on the region. Meat was a very rare food. Among the lower classes, dietary habits were still closely tied to what could be locally grown. Among the wealthier social classes, however, this period marked the beginning of true culinary art. With the discovery of new continents in the previous century, foods like potatoes, rice, corn, asparagus, spinach, and tomatoes, which were previously rare, became more widespread. High society developed a true interest in cuisine, especially among royalty. The consommé and chicken and pigeon fricassee date back to the reign of Louis XV, along with sauces such as béchamel and mayonnaise. Coffee, tea, and, finally, chocolate concluded the most important meals. Lunchtime became an opportunity to gather, and the first bistro was opened in Paris. Confectionery art was born: cakes, pastries, and meringues made their grand entrance at important dinners. The gastronomic geography of Europe was already well-defined; French cuisine, considered among the arts, attracted the interest of painters and writers, and gained European dominance partly due to a prominent figure: Marie-Antoine Carême. Born into poverty, he rose to become a culinary genius. With Carême, gastronomy, now seen as an art, became one of the products of intellectual thought: it required the work of professionals and stimulated theoretical debates among intellectuals, who strove to capture the harmony between taste, sight, and smell.

EXAMPLES

A LEGUME PURÉE (54)
A WILD-CAUGHT FISH (75)
SEASONAL FRUITS AND VEGETABLES (167)
A DESSERT (306)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

602 CO₂ e(i)

19th Century 19

In the 19th century, the productive growth of European agriculture (both through technological innovation and the establishment of new crops) managed to support the food demands of a rapidly growing population. However, the progressive "simplification" of the popular diet, increasingly focused on the consumption of a few types of food, led to a real nutritional impoverishment compared to the past. During this period, the first major paradoxes of the food industry emerged, still influencing some of our bad dietary habits today. For instance, white bread began to gain popularity across wider consumer segments despite being nutritionally poorer and less healthy: the new processing method removed the wheat germ entirely, instead of crushing it with the whole grain. Yet, such was the prestige and appeal of the white color, historically associated with luxury, that nutritional considerations were overlooked. Millions of tons of food products now traveled hundreds of kilometers, and the delocalization of the food system began to weaken the connection between food and territory, imparting a more uniform character to the food systems and dietary patterns of the industrialized world.

The development of a global commercial distribution network eliminated famines in the industrialized world but worsened living conditions in other countries. The discoveries of Louis Pasteur and Nicolas Appert paved the way for the industrial canning of meat, vegetables, and soups, while new refrigeration and freezing techniques were developed. Gradually, there was a shift from a diet based primarily on cereals to one where proteins and fats were largely derived from animal products, which had a significant environmental impact. Luxury became more refined, delicate, and sophisticated, with smooth and creamy sauces replacing the sharp contrasts of flavors. New social classes, ideologies, and fashions emerged. Hearty appetites and an abundance of meat—old symbols of strength, power, and nobility—were no longer universally admired in society.

EXAMPLES:

A BEEF STEAK WITH PEAS
BUTTERED MASHED POTATOES
A PORTION OF WHITE BREAD
AN IMPORTED FRUIT

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

3.709 CO₂ e(i)

EARLY 20TH CENTURY 20

In the early decades of the 1900s, only the upper social classes had adequate nutrition, while the rest of the population ate primarily to stave off hunger rather than to nourish themselves. As a result, that period was characterized by a constant battle against hunger, with the population’s main desire being to have at least one substantial meal a day. The nutritional situation in Italy was relatively homogenous across both rural and urban areas, marked by food shortages for the majority of social classes. Everything was rationed according to income levels across different professional categories, which divided the population into various income brackets. Only a few could afford what was considered "luxury food" at the time. The daily meal for these affluent families started in the morning with white bread, butter, milk, and coffee. Lunch typically included a broth-based soup and a meat dish, prepared in various ways (roast with potatoes, stewed with herbs, or braised), always accompanied by white bread. Dinner always featured a meat dish, followed by bread, seasonal vegetables, and cheese. Fruit and desserts were the final course of both lunch and often dinner for these wealthy families.

In stark contrast was the diet of the rest of the social groups, which consisted of families with various income levels who made small modifications to the three meals based on their means. Poorer families replaced coffee at breakfast with a beverage made from a mixture of roasted chickpeas and barley called "cicoria" (chicory), while those with a bit more means might add cheese or salami to the bread. Lunch consisted of a single dish, generally a soup made with lard, herbs, onions, tomatoes, pasta and potatoes, or pasta and cabbage, or rice and potatoes, or other seasonal vegetables. Another common dish was a legume soup made with onions, garlic, and seasoned with oil, or stewed legumes, usually beans or lentils, prepared with potatoes, lard, and tomatoes. A common characteristic of all these dishes was their low cost. Families with slightly higher incomes often replaced the single soup with typical regional dishes, followed occasionally by a meat or fish dish, though not every day.

Dinner was typically bread and cheese or salami, or an omelette with salad, though for poorer families, it was not uncommon to have soup made with bread, milk, and "cicoria," or leftovers from lunch, both of which had the advantage of being inexpensive and not depleting coal reserves. Sweets were completely absent from the diets of most of these families, though fruit did make occasional appearances on everyone’s table. A constant across all family meals, even in different social classes, was the use of wine, with quality varying depending on economic means. Overall, there was little change in the diet of Italians for a long time. The first half of the 20th century, marked by two world wars and the resulting deprivations, continued to be characterized by dietary disparities that reflected stark social and economic inequalities.

EXAMPLES
A TURKEY BREAST
A PIECE OF CHEESE
A MIXED SALAD

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

2.238 CO₂ e(i)

1950s 21

The 1950s are unanimously considered the years of the so-called economic miracle, set to leave an indelible mark on the social and cultural fabric. The social outcomes of the economic miracle were equally varied and complex. However, the real revolution of the 1950s is marked by a substantial increase in material wealth, allowing a growing portion of the population access to a leisure lifestyle previously unknown to most. Thus, consumerism, made possible by Fordism—the mass production and automation of consumer goods—became the keyword defining this era. It’s no surprise, then, that the diet also underwent a series of definitive changes. Whereas in agricultural and pre-industrial society, bread was the primary food for the majority of the population, during the 1950s, widely produced and purchased foods became the dietary staples. The first studies were conducted on the influence of an unhealthy diet on cardiovascular diseases. The true leap, both economic and cultural, was furthered by the advent of household appliances, notably the refrigerator, which became a veritable icon for housewives of the time.

People also began to consume meat abundantly, influenced by the high-protein dietary trends of the United States. Fast food restaurants and supermarkets emerged, which in a few years would challenge the viability of small shops, once synonymous with freshness, locality, and seasonality.

EXAMPLES
A HAMBURGER WITH FRENCH FRIES
A SLICE OF CHEESE
A STRAWBERRY MILKSHAKE

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

4.249 CO₂ e(i)

1970s 22

By this period, preservatives and packaged products had become permanent fixtures in our pantries. Although people are already aware that the quality, quantity, and type of food consumed can significantly impact health, unhealthy eating habits are increasingly prevalent, often neglecting the regular consumption of seasonal fruits and vegetables, legumes, and whole grains in favor of industrial food products. Everyone seems to be acutely aware and rightly concerned about air quality (smog, fumes, and pollutants) but tends to underestimate the crucial role that nutrition plays in determining health.

We must always remember that proper nutrition helps preserve and improve health or, conversely, can compromise it, as foods can become carriers of toxic substances, harmful to the digestive or cardiovascular systems, the immune system, and even potentially carcinogenic. Healthy eating is thus the cornerstone of prevention and should include a high intake of vegetables (fruits and vegetables are "protective" foods) and minimal meat. Today, statistics confirm that 75% of health problems are caused by unhealthy lifestyles and poor eating habits (compared to 11% associated with pollution and 6% with stress).

Food is essential for the body to grow and to provide the energy needed for physiological functions. To live healthily, it is necessary to balance "intake" and "expenditure" of food: if one eats too much, for example, they exceed the natural purpose of nutrition and accumulate fat. Today, 65% of the global population lives in countries where overweight and obesity cause more deaths than malnutrition.

EXAMPLES
CHICKEN WITH MASHED POTATOES AND VEGETABLES (675)
A SERVING OF PANCAKES (1277)
A SLICE OF MARGHERITA PIZZA (556)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

2.627 CO₂ e(i)

1980s 23

In Italy, as in other wealthy countries, it is at home where most food is wasted: over 75 kilograms of food per person have ended up in the trash each year in recent decades, amounting to a waste of 500 euros annually! For some time now, the world has been producing enough food to feed its entire population, but paradoxically, almost a billion people still suffer from hunger, and two billion are malnourished. One factor contributing to these deep imbalances is the amount of food that is wasted. In a world of seven billion people, soon to exceed nine billion, wasting food is absolutely unacceptable and illogical from an ethical, economic, and environmental standpoint. Along with wasted food, we also waste the land, water, and fertilizers necessary to produce it, not to mention the pollutants and greenhouse gases released both during production and from decomposing food in landfills. The global food system has profound implications for the environment, and producing food that no one eats only serves to exacerbate the already immense pressures. It is now more urgent than ever to reduce the use of natural resources and make it more efficient and sustainable. In developing countries, almost all food losses are unintentional, due to financial, infrastructural, and marketing limitations. In wealthy countries, however, the final part of the food chain plays the most significant role: retail distribution, which wastes large quantities of food due to quality standards that overly prioritize appearance and confusion over expiration dates, and consumers, who throw away food due to excessive purchases, improper storage methods, and overly large portions.

EXAMPLES
A SERVING OF PASTA WITH CREAM AND SALMON (700)
A MILKSHAKE WITH MILK, CREAM, CHOCOLATE, AND STRAWBERRIES (1300)
AN HOTDOG (1450)
CANAPÉS (1500)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

4.950 CO₂ e(i)

2024 24

We now live in a time characterized by stark paradoxes in the food sector: FAO reports on the state of food insecurity in the world indicate that the number of undernourished people on Earth has hovered around one billion in recent years and could increase further due to the impact of price fluctuations for basic food commodities on international markets. Meanwhile, in other parts of the world, obesity has reached comparable numbers. This results in over two billion people being malnourished, eating either too much or too little, with significant economic, environmental, social, and health-related consequences. Food waste also encompasses "direct" waste in the supply chain (food industry and large-scale retail) and "indirect" waste (fertilizers, pesticides, energy, water). Enormous amounts of water are required to produce the food we eat every day. In particular, meat production requires more water compared to other plant-based foods. To produce one kilogram of apples, 820 liters are needed, one kilogram of corn requires 1,220 liters of water, one kilogram of rice needs 2,500 liters, one kilogram of chicken requires 4,300 liters, one kilogram of pork needs 5,990 liters, and one kilogram of beef demands 15,500 liters of water. These high numbers are determined by the three components of water use identified in calculating the water footprint: rainwater, groundwater, and water that returns polluted to the environment. To truly save water, it is essential to reduce the consumption of animal products and focus on direct consumption of plants (grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, in thousands of appetizing recipes that can be prepared); this is by far the most impactful single action a person can take, far more effective than any other water-saving measure an individual might adopt. Reducing waste of edible products would allow for more efficient land use, better water resource management, and beneficial outcomes across the entire agricultural sector on a global scale.

EXAMPLES

HAM SANDWICH (1573)
TURKEY BURGER WITH SAUCES (697)
BEEF FILET (3228)
PIZZA WITH BRESAOLA, OLIVES, CHEESE, VEGETABLES (3500)
CHEESEBURGER (2826)
STRAWBERRIES WITH CHOCOLATE (354)
PAPAYA (380)
NON-LOCAL FRESH FISH FOR A SUSHI PORTION (1300)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

13.858 CO₂ e(i)

A HEALTHY AND SUSTAINABLE MEAL WITHOUT RED MEAT 25

It is now widely known that more than half of the greenhouse gases produced today by humans come from industrial livestock farming, responsible for 51% of the emissions produced annually across the entire planet, equivalent to 32.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide.

According to reports, a steak pollutes more than a car: while producing 225 grams of potatoes generates an amount of CO2 equivalent to driving a car for 300 meters, producing the same amount of chicken requires driving 117 km, and beef demands a staggering 15.8 km.

This doesn't mean we have to eliminate meat entirely or become vegetarians. However, limiting its consumption—perhaps by excluding it from our diet just one day a week—would make us feel better, both physically and with our conscience, and have a tangible effect on global warming. There are many nutritious and tasty alternatives to meat.

EXAMPLES

A SERVING OF ORGANIC SPELT (70)

A SLICE OF WILD-CAUGHT SALMON (195)

A FRESH ORGANIC SEASONAL FRUIT SALAD (84)

ORGANIC SEASONAL VEGETABLES (83)

ORGANIC WHOLEMEAL BREAD (90)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

522 CO₂ e(i)

A HEALTHY AND SUSTAINABLE MEAL WITH CHEESE 26

If the United States were to eliminate cattle farming and beef consumption, they could feed three times as many people as they do today. Cultivated land worldwide alone could feed 4 billion more people than it currently does. This could be achieved by shifting from animal feed and biofuel production to exclusively human food production, providing sustenance for millions. By avoiding cattle and opting for chicken and pork, an additional 357 million people could be fed, and switching to a diet without meat but including eggs and dairy could support an additional 815 million people.

Humanity could fully meet its protein requirements with plant-based diets, by partially modifying cultivation systems, for example, with increased legume production.

EXAMPLES

A SERVING OF ORGANIC BARLEY (70)

A SPRINKLING OF LOCAL ORGANIC CHEESE (250)

ORGANIC SEASONAL VEGETABLES (83)

AN ORGANIC SEASONAL FRUIT (84)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

487 CO₂ e(i)

A HEALTHY AND SUSTAINABLE MEAL WITH EGGS 27

A study on meat and dairy consumption by Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden demonstrates that, to combat climate change and keep global warming below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels — a goal supported by the international community — global greenhouse gas emissions need to be reduced by 80 to 90 percent by the second half of this century. It is not enough to only eliminate carbon dioxide emissions from the energy and transport sectors because greenhouse gases from food production and agriculture are extremely high. Currently, the United States and the European Union have the highest per capita consumption of meat and dairy products globally, and it continues to rise. The longer these trends persist, the harder it will be to achieve climate targets. Altering these trends will be a challenging task and may take considerable time, but wealthy countries should set an example by implementing measures to moderate the consumption of these foods.

EXAMPLES

A SERVING OF LOCAL ORGANIC EGGS (203)

A SLICE OF WHOLE ORGANIC BREAD (70)

ORGANIC SEASONAL VEGETABLES (83)

A SERVING OF ORGANIC SEASONAL FRUIT (84)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

440 CO₂ e(i)

A HEALTHY AND SUSTAINABLE VEGAN MEAL 28

A vegan diet, consisting of 100% plant-based foods, is the most eco-sustainable of all. According to a report conducted for the German consumer association Foodwatch by the German Institute for Ecological Economic Research (IÖW), it emerged that a vegetarian diet has an impact on the greenhouse effect (without considering water consumption, chemicals, land, etc.) that is four times higher than a vegan diet, while an omnivorous diet has an impact that is eight times higher. To make the comparison understandable to the public, it was explained in terms of “equivalent kilometers” driven by a car — particularly, how many kilometers driven by car are equivalent to 1 kg of meat or 1 kg of wheat. Comparing the greenhouse gas emissions from food consumed by a person over an entire year, expressed as the equivalent kilometers driven in a year, the numerical results of the study show that a vegan diet, from organic farming, is equivalent to 281 km, and from conventional farming to 629 km. The lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet, from organic farming, equals 1,978 km, and from conventional farming, 2,427 km. The omnivorous diet, from organic farming, is equivalent to 4,377 km, and from conventional farming, 4,758 km. In conclusion, organic farming becomes an ecological choice, but only if plants are consumed directly: with a vegan diet, greenhouse gas emissions can be halved if organic agriculture is chosen. However, even with conventional agriculture, a vegan choice is significantly better than the other two options. Conversely, the choice of organic farming is not very significant in an omnivorous diet (almost negligible), nor in a lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet.

EXAMPLES

A SERVING OF ORGANIC BROWN RICE (70)

A SERVING OF LEGUMES (54)

ORGANIC SEASONAL VEGETABLES (83)

A SERVING OF ORGANIC SEASONAL FRUIT (84)

ORGANIC NUTS (70)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

361 CO₂ e(i)